Communication 304/Political Science 304
The Press and Politics in the United States

Course Introduction

This course explores relations between the political system and the press in the United States. You will learn how the press covers politics and the government, how the political system and the press influence each other, and how basic rules derived from the First Amendment define freedom of the press in the United States. You will learn about the philosophical and historical connections between the U.S. media and the political system as well as how the press interacts with politicians and the government on a day-to-day basis. Finally, you will learn about the role of the press in policymaking, specifically how routine contacts between officials and reporters influence the news that citizens receive about public affairs.

Instructor's Introduction

Welcome to the Press and Politics in the United States. I hope you find the course rewarding and enjoyable. In this course, we will examine connections between the press and politics, defining "politics" in the broadest terms. Politics includes electoral politics—the process of selecting public officials—as well as the maneuvers of public officials as they devise public policies. Although there are no formal prerequisites for this class, an interest in public affairs—including regular attention to newspapers, online news outlets, and television news—is helpful. This class is designed for non-majors, pre-majors, and majors.

Course Objectives

This class explores the ways in which politics and the mass media affect each other. Accordingly, by the end of this course, you will be able to

• understand the basic principles that tie together the U.S. political system and the nation's media;
• discuss how legal rules derived from the First Amendment give the U.S. press considerable freedom from controls imposed by political leaders;
• read and analyze a court opinion dealing with freedom of the press;
• discuss how and why the press and government interact every day;
• explain several ways that the press helps candidates for public office attract attention and win elections;
• organize your ideas and present them in short papers; and
• critically read (or watch) and analyze news involving public affairs so that you understand how it is shaped by the dynamics of the press and of government.

About the Online Environment

Your online course offers several advantages to the traditional classroom, including the comprehensive Online Student Handbook, the ability to communicate electronically with students and with your instructor, and links to a rich array of online resources.

Online Student Handbook

This handbook answers questions about your online learning course, such as how to purchase your text, schedule an exam, obtain a transcript, and get technical help if you need it. The handbook also provides additional resources, such as how to order books or journals from the library and how to study for an online course.

Communications with Your Instructor and Student Peers

• Online Discussion Forums, designed by the University of Washington award winning Catalyst team, allow you to communicate with other currently enrolled students and with your instructor. We encourage you to use the forum to exchange ideas, resources, and comments about your course work with other students in this course. This unstructured forum is monitored by your instructor. For further information about the forum, see the section, Electronic Discussion Seminar, below.
• Please e-mail me directly if you have any questions about the course.

Online Resources

As an online student, you have access to a wealth of Web resources compiled to provide fast, easy access to information that supports your online learning experience. Organized by subjects, Online Resources link you to sites with help for writing and research, study skills, language learning, and library reference materials. All links have been assessed for credibility and reliability, and they are regularly monitored to ensure their usability.

In addition to these general resources, I have recommended additional Web sites under the Bibliography below. Taking the time to explore these sites will enrich your online learning experience and increase your understanding of the course material.

Course Plan and Goals

With these objectives in mind, the course material is divided into six broad sections, each covering one to three lessons.

• First, we will explore (in Lessons One and Two) the basic connections that link American society, its system of government, and its media. Fundamental experiences and characteristics of a society shape its media laws and affect how the press interacts with government on a day-to-day basis. These experiences and characteristics include the nation's history, its economy, its political philosophy, and perceptions of human nature. For this part of the course, you will read about historical-philosophical traditions that shaped today's government-media relations.
• Second, building on this historical-philosophical background, we will examine (in Lessons Three, Four, and Five) how constitutional principles protect the media from meddling by politicians and government officials. Specifically, the First Amendment allows the press to publish almost anything without fear that government can stop it. And it has become exceedingly difficult for politicians to successfully sue for media attacks on their reputations.
• Third, after the midterm exam, the course will shift its focus away from legal issues. We'll initially consider (in Lessons Seven and Eight) how political news gets reported. We'll look at this from the vantage of the media engaged in the reporting and from the perspective of political figures who are the subjects—and sources—of the reports.
• Fourth, the course will explore (in Lesson Nine) some of the major ways that the press affects the electoral process. What role does the press play in electing public officials? Does the press substantially affect voters' attitudes and behaviors?
• Fifth, one lesson (Ten) will provide concrete illustrations of the principles and processes discussed earlier. Here we will look closely at how presidents interact with the media to achieve their partisan and policy objectives. We will also examine the influence of the media in solving, or complicating, political crises.
• Sixth, the last part of the course before the final exam (Lesson Eleven) considers how new media technologies are redefining relations between politics and the press. Current developments are raising important questions about American traditions and communications. For instance, does the use of the Internet allow citizens and politicians to communicate directly and bypass the media?

One overriding goal of this course is to have you make connections among four levels of politics-media relations. By the end of this course, you should appreciate how historical experiences (part one of the course) influenced the freedoms the American press now enjoys (part two). That, in turn, created expectations of how the press should report on politics (part three) and elections (part four).

Relation to Other Courses in Communication

This course parallels and complements other 300-level courses. Most important, this course serves as a gateway for several advanced Communication classes, for which you may choose to register later.

About The Readings

• Graber, Doris. Mass Media and America Politics. 7th ed. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2006.

Doris Graber's Mass Media and American Politics provides a comprehensive look at the topics covered in this class. Graber, a political scientist, has written several books about the media and politics.

• Lewis, Anthony. Make No Law: The Sullivan Case and the First Amendment. New York: Random House, 1991.

Anthony Lewis' Make No Law is a crisply written account of the most important libel case in American history, New York Times v. Sullivan. The author, a lawyer and a journalist, is a columnist for the New York Times. Lewis analyzes the case and the circumstances that spawned it. Also important for our purposes, Lewis examines implications of the case for both First Amendment jurisprudence and for national politics.

• Course reader to be received at the time of registration—this required collection includes the following:
  • Theodore Peterson, "The Social Responsibility Theory." In Four Theories of the Press, edited by Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm. (Urbana: University of
    Illinois Press, 1956), 73–103, 150–51.
  • Excerpts from the U.S. Supreme Court's opinion in Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. Reports 697 (1931).
  • U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "Communications and the Democratic Process," Critical Connections: Communications for the Future (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1990), 144–78.

The collection of readings that I've compiled fills gaps not covered by the two books. It contains the edited version of an important First Amendment decision handed down by the Supreme Court. Don't be intimidated by the prospect of reading a court case. I will provide guidance in reading and analyzing it. The collection also contains two book chapters.

Keeping Up With The News

Although not required for this course, you should be reading a newspaper on a regular basis and watching public affairs programs on television. If you have access to cable television, take advantage of C-SPAN, CNN, and other channels that concentrate on news and public affairs. For instance, you might watch press conferences held by the President or other public officials. Web sites have become essential sources for news of public affairs. Most major newspapers (e.g., New York Times, Washington Post), magazines (e.g., Time), and television networks (e.g., CNN) maintain useful sites.

A supplemental bibliography of books, magazines, and Web sites can be found following this introduction.

Online Course Materials

The online course materials will escort you through the lessons, readings, assignments, and exams. In designing them, I have tried to anticipate obvious and not-so-obvious problems that might arise. If at any point you feel lost or if my instructions or comments seem confusing, please don't hesitate to contact me. (See About Your Instructor on your online course syllabus for information on how to contact me.)

I urge you to tackle each lesson in sequence. Also, you might find it helpful to read each lesson twice—first skimming it and then reading it carefully. That way you'll have a sense of the whole lesson before you work through the readings.

Each lesson opens with one or more assigned readings. I will always offer some tips about how to approach the materials. Usually I offer comments to focus your attention on the most important ideas in a reading. Also, I typically pose questions that direct your attention to key concepts.

When the course moves into new territory—or a new type of assignment—the lesson will provide special guidance for dealing with it. At selected points I include practice exercises so you can assess your own progress. Consider these an integral part of the lesson; most are warm-ups for the final exam.

Assignments

Besides the final exam, you will complete four graded assignments. (There are also five self-graded exercises.) Graded assignments appear in Lessons One, Five, Seven, and Ten.

Two of the assignments will require you to analyze the readings, and two will allow you to apply your knowledge by looking at newspapers or other media for evidence that illustrates principles we discuss in the course. In some cases, the assignments involve making connections from one reading to another. All the assignments cultivate analytical skills that prepare you for the exam.

Tips for the Assignments

The following tips should help you complete the assignments:

1. Start with a sentence or two of general comments—in other words, a thesis or theme.
2. Be certain to answer all parts of the question.
3. Do not dwell on details; usually you should concentrate on offering general observations.
4. Judiciously use examples or specifics to illustrate or support your generalizations.
5. Argue a position or support your opinion in assignments that ask you to do so. Make sure, in these cases, that you do not merely explain the positions of others.

Submitting Assignments

Please include the course name and assignment number in the subject heading of your e-mail message. That way I won’t accidentally delete your message without opening it, thinking it is spam. Also, be certain that your name is on everything you submit.

All of the assignments, but not the final exam, should be submitted by electronic mail. Please paste the assignment into the body of the e-mail message, not in an attachment. That way we will be able to avoid potential technical problems and computer viruses. Attachments, however, might be needed for Assignment 4, as will be explained later in the course.

Sequence of Submission

Please submit assignments in the order they are given; they build on each other. The first assignment must be submitted by itself. After that, you may submit two—but no more—assignments at a time.

Returning Assignments

I will return all assignments promptly. On the rare occasions when I'm out of town for several days, returning them may take a little longer.

For each assignment, I will offer some general comments on the strengths and weaknesses of your work. I try to diagnose any general problems early so we can correct them promptly. Also, I will lightly edit your writing. You should view these assignments as an opportunity to improve your writing.

Practice Exercises and Study Questions

In addition to the graded assignments, I have included five practice exercises, including a midterm exam. (These exercises are located in Lessons Two, Four, Nine, and Eleven.) You will not turn these in to me, and you will find model answers in the appendix. I will provide precise instructions for each exercise. Generally, the exercises will ask you to write about a page and a half (typed, double-spaced). More important than length, of course, is the quality of your ideas and writing. Working through these exercises, and checking the answers in the appendix, will also help prepare you for the assignments and examination.

You will also find that, in many lessons, I have included a self-study question or set of such questions. These questions directly correspond to the objectives of the lesson and are intended to remind you of your goals in studying the material. Although they are not graded, I strongly encourage you to formulate answers on your own.

Exams

This course has one graded test–the final exam–and a practice midterm exam. The final exam is comprehensive—that is, it will cover material from throughout the course.

The exam questions will assess your ability to understand the readings, evaluate the arguments presented by the writers, and apply what you've learned to new situations. I don't ask questions that require you to dredge up obscure information from the readings. Instead, I want you to focus on the principal ideas, concepts, and arguments. Preceding the final exam you'll find a lesson with tips on preparation and with practice questions and model answers.

You will have one and a half hours for the final exam. The exam consists of two parts: First, there will be two or three questions for which you will have to write several sentences; second, there will be one essay question that requires a longer response. The exam will be closed book—no notes or books can be consulted.

Criteria for Grading

The preceding section suggests some of the criteria for grading exams. Following are more precise criteria for exams and assignments. As you might expect, the relative weight of each varies from assignment to assignment. In evaluating your assignments and the final exam, I look for evidence that, first, you actually did the readings. More important, though, I try to gauge whether you can

• understand the readings' principal points and arguments;
• evaluate the evidence used to support or refute arguments;
• make connections among readings;
• synthesize information from a variety of sources;
• organize information and your own ideas;
• lucidly express your thoughts; and
• apply what you've learned to new situations.

Your course grade will be calculated as follows: assignments 1, 2, and 3 are worth 15% each; assignment 4, 20%; and the final exam, 35%. Also, your course grade can be affected by your participation in the electronic discussion forum (see above).

Hints on How to Study

From your experiences in and out of school, you have probably devised some learning techniques that work for you. Continue doing what you have found to be successful.

I have a few tips that might be helpful for the material that you will encounter in this course.

1. As you approach a reading, figure out its structure. Books, articles, and judges' opinions have different structures based on their purposes. A textbook is different than a chapter in a scholarly study, which is different than a court case.
2. Start by looking at introductions, conclusions, and overviews—in other words, get a sense of the whole work. If you're reading a book, there should be a whole chapter devoted to the introduction and another to the conclusion. If you're reading an article or one chapter from a book, look for paragraphs that contain introductory material or summarize its contents.
3. As you get into a reading, pay special attention to subheadings and transitions. Look for topic sentences.
4. You might want to take notes. After you read an article or a chapter, you could write a summary or an abstract from memory. Jot down the most important points that you can remember immediately after reading it. For complex material, an outline might be most appropriate. Outlines force you to organize information in a manner that relates one part to another. What is the main point of a section? That's the main heading. What are the two, three, four or more main supporting points? They constitute the subheadings. What evidence or facts support these points? They constitute the next level of subheadings. And so forth. Well-written books and articles have an implicit framework such as this. (This also is a useful model for your own writing.)
5. Skim all assignments in these online course materials before you get started. That will give you an idea of the skills that you'll be cultivating.
6. Don't be intimidated by the two legal opinions I'm asking you to read (one of the opinions is in the course reader and the second appears as an appendix in Make No Law). They are not that difficult to understand and I'll provide considerable guidance on how to tackle them.

Electronic Discussion Seminar

Given the nature of the material covered in this course, you might find it worthwhile to exchange ideas with other students. (When I teach this class on campus, I often have students participate in debates). Toward this end, you are required to join an electronic discussion list. I maintain a discussion mailing list for the course. You will be added within seven to ten days of your registration. If you wish to be added sooner than that, please contact the instructor directly. If you want to change the address at which you receive your messages, be certain to notify me. When you're responding to a message on the discussion list, you should use the reply function.

Taking part in this discussion group is extremely useful for this course because hardly a week goes by without some development in media law or press coverage of politics. Relations between the media and government are often in the news—in fact, such relations make much of the news. Public affairs programs on C-SPAN, CNN, and the major networks frequently discuss government-media relations.

The discussion list will allow members of the class to express their opinions about subjects covered in the course and developments in the news. We can also use the list to alert each other to television programs, newspaper and magazine articles, and meetings that deal with topics covered by the course. I will occasionally suggest topics to watch for in the news or I might pose a question or two. My involvement in the discussion list will vary with the size of the course. If there are enough students to keep the discussion going, I'll remain in the background of the discussion. If enrollment is low at a given point, then I'll participate more actively.

You will be required to participate a minimum of six times throughout the course. Although your contributions will not be graded, failure to participate will negatively affect your overall course grade (between a 0.1 and 0.3 deduction). The quality of your participation, however, is more important than the frequency (provided that you participate at least six times).

Supplemental Bibliography

The dealings between the mass media and government have inspired hundreds of books and thousands of articles. If you would like additional information about the subjects covered in the class, you'll find some good ones below. I've grouped them into five categories—books about electoral politics and the media; books about First Amendment law and other legal matters; books about the impact of the press on government and policymaking; some easily accessible magazines that regularly discuss these matters; and useful Web sites.

The Media and Electoral Politics

• Crouse, Timothy. The Boys on the Bus: Riding with the Campaign Press Corps. New York: Random House, 1972. A fun and perceptive look at the teams of reporters who move around the country following presidential candidates.
• Bennett, W. Lance. The Governing Crisis: Media, Money, and Marketing in American Elections. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. A political scientist examines how media techniques, and the money they require, have transformed the way we elect our public officials.
• Sabato, Larry J. Feeding Frenzy: How Attack Journalism Has Transformed American Politics. New York: The Free Press, 1991. Analyzes the media coverage of politicians' crises.
• Reinsch, J. Leonard. Getting Elected: From Radio and Roosevelt to Television and Reagan. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1988. A personal account by a reporter who covered major campaigns from 1944 to 1988.

The First Amendment and Media Law

• Hentoff, Nat. Free Speech for Me—But Not for Thee. New York: Harper Collins, 1993. An opinionated account of how conservative and liberal groups battle over the First Amendment.
• Levy, Leonard W. Emergence of a Free Press. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. A detailed study of the period before, during, and shortly after the First Amendment's adoption. Suggests several possible original meanings of the First Amendment.
• Murphy, Paul L. The Meaning of Freedom of Speech: First Amendment Freedoms from Wilson to FDR. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972. A detailed study of the formative years of modern First Amendment doctrines.
• Pember, Don R. Mass Media Law. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Annual editions. Of the several basic textbooks dealing with media law, this is probably the best for undergraduates.
• Smolla, Rodney A. Free Speech in an Open Society. New York: Knopf, 1992. Every year brings a few new books on the importance of a free press and free speech. This is one of the better ones, covering hate speech, government control of the media in the Persian Gulf War, the implications of new media technologies, and much more.
• Zuckman, Harvey L., Martin J. Gaynes, and T. Barton Carter. Mass Communications Law in a Nutshell. 3d ed. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1993. A basic outline of key areas of media law.

Government-Media Relations

• Cohen, Bernard C. The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963. A classic—the first major study of the media's role in diplomacy and foreign affairs.
• Grossman, Michael B. and Martha J. Kumar. Portraying the President: The White House and the News Media. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. This book looks inside the White House and the press to see how the dynamics of each influence the other. A good overview.
• Hallin, Daniel C. The "Uncensored War": The Media and Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. The Vietnam War was, of course, one of the biggest news stories of the twentieth century. Hallin cleverly dissects how and why the press covered the war, both in Vietnam itself and in Washington, D.C.
• Hertsgaard, Mark. On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1988. An incisive account of how the White House under Reagan captivated—some say captured—the press. The author tries to explain why Reagan was able to use the press so successfully to shape his image and cultivate support for his policies.
• Hess, Stephen. The Ultimate Insiders: U.S. Senators in the National Media. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1986. A good, short study of how one part of the federal government is reported. Hess has written several books about the Washington media and their relations with government.
• Juergens, George. News from the White House: The Presidential-Press Relationship in the Progressive Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Theodore Roosevelt was the first president to appreciate the inherent power of his office to make news—and make it on command to help his presidency.
• Leonard, Thomas C. The Power of the Press: The Birth of American Political Reporting. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. The book ranges from the Revolutionary period to the early twentieth century in explaining how the press reported on government and public issues.
• Sigal, Leon V. Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973. Though a bit dated, this book is still on target in explaining how reporters and government officials deal with each other.
• Steele, Richard W. Propaganda in an Open Society: The Roosevelt Administration and the Media, 1933-1941. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985. Franklin Roosevelt was a master at using the press to advance his policies. Also, he was probably the first president to use the whole federal bureaucracy as a publicity machine.
• Tebbel, John and Sarah Miles Watts. The Press and the Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Although there are many books examining a single president's relations with the press, this is one of two books that review the whole history.

Magazines

• American Journalism Review. Covers current controversies in the mass media, many of which involve government. Available at university libraries, some larger bookstores, and newsstands.
• Columbia Journalism Review. Also available at university libraries, some bookstores, and newsstands. Articles and notes on current topics; published every two months.
• Newsweek. Regularly covers timely topics in the media, including a lot about government.
• Time. Like Newsweek, it pays considerable attention to the media and government.

Web Sites

• The Center for the People and the Press—www.people-press.org
  Sponsored by the Pew Charitable Trusts, this site "studies attitudes toward the press, politics and public policy issues," according to its home page.
• Free Expression Network Clearinghouse—www.freeexpression.org
  This site defines free expression expansively. In addition to material on freedom of the press, you'll find information about censoring popular music.
• Miscellaneous—I would urge you to occasionally search the sites of major news organizations. It's easy to find the ones you like: type the name (e.g., CNN) into a search engine. Newspapers, weekly newsmagazines, and broadcast and cable networks all have sites.
• Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press—www.rcfp.org
  Possibly the single best Web site for material on the latest developments on media law. Easy to understand.
• Student Press Law Center—www.splc.org
  This site tracks recent developments in media law, especially attempts to limit freedom of the press at high schools and colleges.

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